関: Monoamine oxidase inhibitors

同: See Monoamine oxidase inhibitors MAOIs

Wikipedia preview

出典(authority):フリー百科事典『ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』「2013/03/13 20:49:28」(JST)

wiki en

"MAOI" redirects here. For the Easter Island statues, see Moai.

Monoamine oxidase

Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) are chemicals which inhibit the activity of the monoamine oxidase enzyme family. They have a long history of use as medications prescribed for the treatment of depression. They are particularly effective in treating atypical depression.^{[citation needed]}

Because of potentially lethal dietary and drug interactions, monoamine oxidase inhibitors have historically been reserved as a last line of treatment, used only when other classes of antidepressant drugs (for example selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and tricyclic antidepressants) have failed.^[1] A transdermal patch form of the MAOI selegiline, called Emsam, was approved for use by the Food and Drug Administration in the United States on February 28, 2006.^[2]

New research into MAOIs indicate that much of the concern over their dangerous dietary side effects stems from misconceptions and misinformation, and that despite proven effectiveness of this class of drugs, it is underutilized and misunderstood in the medical profession. ^[3] New research also questions the validity of the perceived severity of dietary reactions, which has historically been based on outdated research. ^[4]

Indications

In the past, MAOIs were prescribed for those resistant to tricyclic antidepressant therapy.^{[citation needed]} Newer MAOIs such as selegiline (typically used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease) and the reversible MAOI moclobemide provide a safer alternative^[5] and are now sometimes used as first-line therapy. However, these substances are not always as effective as their predecessors.^{[citation needed]}

MAOIs have been found to be effective in the treatment of panic disorder with agoraphobia, social phobia, atypical depression or mixed anxiety and depression, bulimia, and post-traumatic stress disorder, as well as borderline personality disorder. There are reports of MAOI efficacy in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), trichotillomania, dysmorphophobia, and avoidant personality disorder, but these reports are from uncontrolled case reports.^[5]

MAOIs can also be used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease by targeting MAO-B in particular (therefore affecting dopaminergic neurons), as well as providing an alternative for migraine prophylaxis. Inhibition of both MAO-A and MAO-B is used in the treatment of clinical depression and anxiety.

MAOIs appear to be particularly indicated for outpatients with "neurotic depression" complicated by panic disorder or hysteroid dysphoria, which involves repeated episodes of depressed mood in response to feeling rejected.^[6]

Mechanism of action

MAOIs act by inhibiting the activity of monoamine oxidase, thus preventing the breakdown of monoamine neurotransmitters and thereby increasing their availability. There are two isoforms of monoamine oxidase, MAO-A and MAO-B. MAO-A preferentially deaminates serotonin, melatonin, epinephrine, and norepinephrine. MAO-B preferentially deaminates phenylethylamine and trace amines. Dopamine is equally deaminated by both types.

Reversibility

The early MAOIs inhibited monoamine oxidase irreversibly. When they react with monoamine oxidase, they permanently deactivate it, and the enzyme cannot function until it has been replaced by the body, which can take about two weeks. A few newer MAOIs, a notable one being moclobemide, are reversible, meaning that they are able to detach from the enzyme to facilitate usual catabolism of the substrate. The level of inhibition in this way is governed by the concentrations of the substrate and the MAOI.

Harmaline found in Peganum harmala, as well as the Ayahausca vine, Banisteriopsis caapi, and Passiflora incarnata is a reversible inhibitor of MAO-A (RIMA).^[7]

Selectivity

In addition to reversibility, MAOIs differ by their selectivity of the MAO receptor. Some MAOIs inhibit both MAO-A and MAO-B equally, other MAOIs have been developed to target one over the other.

MAO-A inhibition reduces the breakdown of primarily serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine; selective inhibition of MAO-A allows for tyramine to be metabolised via MAO-B.^[8] Agents that act on serotonin if taken with another serotonin-enhancing agent may result in a potentially fatal interaction called serotonin syndrome or with irreversible and unselective inhibitors (such as older MAOIs), of MAO a hypertensive crisis as a result of tyramine food interactions is particularly problematic with older MAOIs. Tyramine is broken down by MAO-A and MAO-B, therefore inhibiting this action may result in excessive build-up of it, so diet must be monitored for tyramine intake.

MAO-B inhibition reduces the breakdown mainly of dopamine and phenethylamine so there are no dietary restrictions associated with this. MAO-B would also metabolize tyramine, as the only differences between dopamine, phenethylamine, and tyramine are two phenylhydroxyl groups on carbons 3 and 4. The 4-OH would not be a steric hindrance to MAO-B on tyramine.^[9] Two MAO-Bi drugs, selegiline and rasagiline have been approved by the FDA without dietary restrictions, except in high-dosage treatment, wherein they lose their selectivity.^[2]^[10]

Dangers

When ingested orally, MAOIs inhibit the catabolism of dietary amines. When foods containing tyramine are consumed (so-called "cheese effect"), the individual may suffer from hypertensive crisis. If foods containing tryptophan are consumed, hyperserotonemia may result. The amount required to cause a reaction varies greatly from individual to individual, and depends on the degree of inhibition, which in turn depends on dosage and selectivity.

The exact mechanism by which tyramine causes a hypertensive reaction is not well-understood, but it is assumed that tyramine displaces norepinephrine from the storage vesicles.^[11] This may trigger a cascade in which excessive amounts of norepinephrine can lead to a hypertensive crisis. Another theory suggests that proliferation and accumulation of catecholamines causes hypertensive crisis^[12]

Tyrosine, not tyramine, is the precursor to catecholamines. Tyramine is a breakdown product of tyrosine. In the gut and during fermentation, tyrosine, an amino acid, is decarboxylated to tyramine. Under ordinary circumstances, tyramine is deaminated in the liver to an inactive metabolite, but, when the hepatic MAO (primarily MAO-A) is inhibited, the "first-pass" clearance of tyramine is blocked and circulating tyramine levels can climb. Elevated tyramine competes with tyrosine for transport across the blood–brain barrier (via aromatic amino acid transport) where it can then enter adrenergic nerve terminals. Once in the cytoplasmic space, tyramine will be transported via the vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT) into synaptic vesicles, thereby displacing norepinephrine. The mass transfer of norepinephrine from its vesicular storage space into the extracellular space via mass action can precipitate the hypertensive crisis. Hypertensive crises can sometimes result in stroke or cardiac arrhythmia if not treated. In general, this risk is not present with RIMAs. Both kinds of intestinal MAO inhibition can cause hyperpyrexia, nausea, and psychosis if foods high in levodopa are consumed.

Examples of foods and drinks with potentially high levels of tyramine include liver and fermented substances, such as alcoholic beverages and aged cheeses.^[13] (See a List of foods containing tyramine). Examples of levodopa-containing foods include broad beans. These diet restrictions are not necessary for those taking selective MAO-B inhibitors, unless these are being taken in high dosages, as mentioned above.

It deserves separate mention that some meat extracts and yeast extracts (Bovril, Marmite, Vegemite) contain extremely high levels of tyramine, and should not be used with these medications.

When MAOIs were first introduced, these risks were not known, and, over the following four decades, fewer than 100 people have died from hypertensive crisis.^{[citation needed]} Presumed due to the sudden onset and violent appearance of the reaction, MAOIs gained a reputation for being so dangerous that, for a while, they were taken off the market in America entirely. However, it is now believed that, used as directed under the care of a qualified psychiatrist, this class of drugs is a viable alternative treatment for intermediate- to long-term use.

The most significant risk associated with the use of MAOIs is the potential for interactions with over-the-counter and prescription medicines, illicit drugs or medications, and some supplements (e.g., St. John's Wort). It is vital that a doctor supervise such combinations to avoid adverse reactions. For this reason, many users carry an MAOI-card, which lets emergency medical personnel know what drugs to avoid. (E.g., adrenaline dosage should be reduced by 75%, and duration is extended.)^[13] The risk of the interaction of MAOI medications with other drugs or certain foods is particularly dangerous because those on the medication who would have to restrict their diets often are depressed patients who "don't care if they live or die."^[14]

MAOIs should not be combined with other psychoactive substances (antidepressants, painkillers, stimulants, both legal and illegal etc.) except under expert care. Certain combinations can cause lethal reactions, common examples including SSRIs, tricyclics, MDMA, meperidine,^[15] tramadol, and dextromethorphan^{[citation needed]}. Agents with actions on epinephrine, norepinephrine, or dopamine must be administered at much lower doses due to potentiation and prolonged effect.

Nicotine, a substance frequently implicated in tobacco addiction, has been shown to have "relatively weak" addictive properties when administered alone.^[16] The addictive potential increases dramatically after co-administration of an MAOI, which specifically causes sensitization of the locomotor response in rats, a measure of addictive potential.^[17]^[18] This may be reflected in the difficulty of smoking cessation, as tobacco contains naturally-occurring MAOI compounds in addition to the nicotine.^[19]^[20]^[21]

Withdrawal

Antidepressants including MAOIs have some dependence-producing effects, the most notable one being a withdrawal syndrome, which may be severe especially if MAOIs are discontinued abruptly or over-rapidly. However, the dependence-producing potential of MAOIs or antidepressants in general is not as significant as benzodiazepines. For example, antidepressants have significantly less abuse potential than benzodiazepines. Withdrawal symptoms can be managed by a gradual reduction in dosage over a period of weeks, months or years to minimize or prevent withdrawal symptoms.^[22]

MAOIs, as with any antidepressant medications, do not alter the course of the disorder, so it is possible that discontinuation can return the patient to the pre-treatment state.^[23]

This consideration greatly complicates switching a patient between a MAOI and a SSRI, because it is necessary to clear the system completely of one drug before starting another. If one also tapers dosage gradually, the result is that for weeks a depressed patient will have to bear the depression without chemical help during the drug-free interval. This may be preferable to risking the effects of an interaction between the two drugs, but it is often not easy for the patient^{[citation needed]}.

Interactions

The MAOIs are infamous for their numerous drug interactions. Unless the interaction is desired, any drug that falls within the following classifications should be avoided:

Substances that are metabolized by monoamine oxidase, as they can be boosted by up to several-fold.
Substances that increase serotonin, norepinephrine, or dopamine activity, as too much of any of these neurochemicals can result in severe acute consequences, including serotonin syndrome, hypertensive crisis, and psychosis, respectively.

Such substances include:

Phenethylamines: 2C-B, Mescaline, Phenethylamine (PEA), etc.
- Amphetamines: Amphetamine, MDMA ("Ecstasy"), Dextroamphetamine, Methamphetamine, DOM, etc.
Tryptamines: DMT, Psilocin/Psilocybin ("Magic Mushrooms"), etc.
- Lysergamides: Ergolines/LSA, LSD ("Acid"), etc.
Serotonin, Norepinephrine, and/or Dopamine Reuptake Inhibitors:
- Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs): Citalopram, Dapoxetine, Escitalopram, Fluoxetine, Fluvoxamine, Paroxetine, Sertraline.
- Serotonin-Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors (SNRIs): Desvenlafaxine, Duloxetine, Milnacipran, Venlafaxine.
- Norepinephrine-Dopamine Reuptake Inhibitors (NDRIs): Amineptine, Bupropion, Methylphenidate, Nomifensine.
- Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors (NRIs): Atomoxetine, Mazindol, Reboxetine.
- Tricyclic Antidepressants (TCAs): Amitriptyline, Butriptyline, Clomipramine, Desipramine, Dosulepin, Doxepin, Imipramine, Lofepramine, Nortriptyline, Protriptyline, Trimipramine.
- Tetracyclic Antidepressants (TeCAs): Amoxapine, Maprotiline.
- Phenylpiperidine derivative Opioids: Meperidine/Pethidine, Tramadol, Methadone, Fentanyl, Dextropropoxyphene, Propoxyphene.
- Others: Brompheniramine, Chlorpheniramine, Cocaine, Cyclobenzaprine, Dextromethorphan (DXM), Ketamine, MDPV, Nefazodone, Phencyclidine (PCP), Pheniramine, Sibutramine, Trazodone.
Serotonin, Norepinephrine, and/or Dopamine Releasers: 4-Methylaminorex (4-MAR), Amphetamine, Benzphetamine, Cathine, Cathinone, Diethylcathinone, Ephedrine, Levmetamfetamine, Lisdexamfetamine, MDMA ("Ecstasy"), Methamphetamine, Pemoline, Phendimetrazine, Phenethylamine (PEA), Phentermine, Propylhexedrine, Pseudoephedrine, Phenylephrine, Tyramine.
Serotonin, Norepinephrine, and/or Dopamine Supplemental Precursors: 5-HTP, L-DOPA, L-Phenylalanine, L-Tryptophan, L-Tyrosine.
Local and General anesthetic in surgery and dentistry in particular those containing Epinephrine. There is no universally taught or accepted practice regarding dentistry and use of MAOIs such as Phenelzine and it is, therefore, vital to inform all clinicians especially dentists of the potential effect of MAOIs and Local Anesthesia. In preparation for dental work, withdrawal from Phenelzine is specifically advised, however since this takes two weeks it is not always a desirable or practical option. Dentists using Local Anesthesia are advised to use a non-epinephrine anesthetic such as Carbocaine at a level of 3%. Specific attention should be paid to blood pressure during the procedure and the level of the anesthetic should be regularly and appropriately topped up since non-epinephrine anestetics take longer to come into effect and wear off faster. Patients taking Phenelzine are advised to notify their Psychiatrist prior to any dental treatment.
Certain Other Supplements: Hypericum perforatum ("St John's Wort"), Inositol, Rhodiola rosea, S-Adenosyl-L-Methionine (SAMe), L-Theanine.
Other Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors.

It is recommended by the FDA to contact a physician or pharmacist before taking any drug while on an MAOI.

History

The older MAOIs' heyday was mostly between the years 1957 and 1970.^[8] The initial popularity of the 'classic' non-selective irreversible MAO inhibitors began to wane due to their serious interactions with sympathomimetic drugs and tyramine-containing foods that could lead to dangerous hypertensive emergencies. As a result, the use by medical practitioners of these older MAOIs declined. When scientists discovered that there are two different MAO enzymes (MAO-A and MAO-B), they developed selective compounds for MAO-B, (for example, selegiline, which is used for Parkinson's disease), to reduce the side-effects and serious interactions. Further improvement occurred with the development of compounds (moclobemide and toloxatone) that not only are selective but cause reversible MAO-A inhibition and a reduction in dietary and drug interactions.^[24]

Irreversible MAOIs were the first antidepressants to be discovered, but they fell out of favour with the advent of the discovery of safer antidepressants; these newer antidepressant drug classes have fewer adverse effects, especially the dangerous irreversible MAOI food interaction with tyramine, sometimes referred to as the 'cheese syndrome', which leads to dangerous hypertension. However, reversible MAOIs lack these hypertensive adverse effects.^[25] Moclobemide, was the first reversible inhibitor of MAO-A to enter widespread clinical practice; its reversible inhibitory features give it a number of advantages over the older irreversible MAO inhibitors.^[26]

List of MAOIs

Herbal Drugs
- Selective MAO-A Inhibitors
  - Harmala alkaloids (found in Coffee,^[27] Syrian rue,^[28]
  - Resveratrol^[29] (found in Japanese knotweed and skin of red grapes)
- Nonselective MAO-A/MAO-B Inhibitors
  - Curcumin^[30] (found in Turmeric)
  - Rhodiola rosea^[31] (active constituent(s) unknown)
  - Ruta graveolens^[32] (active constituent(s) unknown)
  - Ginkgo biloba^[33]
  - Anthocyanins^[34]
  - Proanthocyanidin^[35]
- Selective MAO-B inhibitors
  - Epicatechin^[36]
  - Emodin^[37] (found in Fo-Ti)
  - Gentiana lutea^[38] (active constituent(s) unknown)

Pharmaceutical Drugs
- Nonselective MAO-A/MAO-B Inhibitors
  - Hydrazines
    - Benmoxin (Nerusil, Neuralex)
    - Hydralazine (Apresoline)
    - Iproclozide (Sursum)
    - Iproniazid (Marsilid, Iprozid, Ipronid, Rivivol, Propilniazida)
    - Isocarboxazid (Marplan)
    - Isoniazid (Laniazid, Nydrazid)
    - Mebanazine (Actomol)
    - Nialamide (Niamid)
    - Octamoxin (Ximaol, Nimaol)
    - Phenelzine (Nardil, Nardelzine)
    - Pheniprazine (Catron)
    - Phenoxypropazine (Drazine)
    - Pivalylbenzhydrazine (Tersavid)
    - Procarbazine (Matulane, Natulan, Indicarb)
    - Safrazine (Safra)
  - Non-Hydrazines
    - Caroxazone (Surodil, Timostenil)
    - Echinopsidine (Adepren)
    - Furazolidone (Furoxone, Dependal-M)
    - Linezolid (Zyvox, Zyvoxam, Zyvoxid)
    - Tranylcypromine (Parnate, Jatrosom)
- Selective MAO-A Inhibitors
  - Brofaromine (Consonar)
  - Metralindole (Inkazan)
  - Minaprine (Cantor)
  - Moclobemide (Aurorix, Manerix)
  - Pirlindole (Pirazidol)
  - Toloxatone (Humoryl)
- Selective MAO-B Inhibitors
  - Lazabemide (Pakio, Tempium)
  - Pargyline (Eutonyl)
  - Rasagiline (Azilect)
  - Selegiline (Deprenyl, Eldepryl, Emsam)

Research Compounds
- Nonselective MAO-A/MAO-B Inhibitors
  - Hydrazines
    - Metfendrazine
- Selective MAO-A Inhibitors
  - Amiflamine
  - Bazinaprine
  - Befloxatone
  - Cimoxatone
  - Clorgyline
  - Esuprone
  - Eprobemide (Befol)
  - Methylene Blue
  - Pirlindole
  - Sercloremine
  - Tetrindole
  - Thesputiaint
  - CX157 (Tyrima)
- Selective MAO-B Inhibitors
  - D-Deprenyl
  - Ladostigil
  - Milacemide
  - Mofegiline

Antiparasitic
- Invertebrate MAO Inhibitors
  - Amitraz antiparasitic used in animals for ticks, mites (sarcoptes, demodex) and lice. Used on plants as an insecticide against mites, aphids, etc.

Various tryptamine and phenethylamine/amphetamine derivatives such as αET, αMT, amphetamine (itself), methamphetamine, MDMA, 4-MTA, PMA, 2C-T-7, and 2C-T-21 may also have weak to strong MAOI effects at high doses. Many other unlisted hydrazines like hydrazine (itself), monomethylhydrazine, and phenylhydrazine have some MAOI properties as well.

Cultural references

In the episode "The Late Shaft" of the TV detective drama Castle, Bobby Mann was taking an MAO inhibitor. His killer used this fact to trigger a negative interaction with the drug, leading to Bobby's death through what seemed to be a normal heart attack.

In the episode "Cut" of Law & Order, a surgeon prescribes painkillers that interact with an MAOI a patient was taking, leading to her death.

The pilot episode of Law and Order was similar to an actual event. Journalist Sidney Zion questioned the sudden death of his daughter Libby Zion at an ER room in Manhattan on Oct 4, 1984. The cause of death was attributed to "mysterious infection".^[39]^[40]^[41] The father convinced authorities to launch a criminal investigation when it was discovered that several medications, including Demerol, were administered to his daughter, reacting with her Nardil medications. The DA sought charges of murder against a doctor, which approved use of restraints and narcotics when Libby became increasingly agitated.^[42] The case prompted many reforms in graduate medical education and limiting number of hours staff can work.^[43] Drug abuse was successfully argued as a major factor leading to her death.^[44]

References

^ Mayo Clinic Staff, "Depression (major depression): Treatment and drugs"
^ ^a ^b "FDA Approves Emsam (Selegiline) as First Drug Patch for Depression." (Press release). U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2006-02-28. http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/2006/ucm108607.htm. Retrieved 2009-11-19.
^ Grady, Meghan M.; Meghan M. Grady and Stephen M. Stah (2012). "Practical guide for prescribing MAOIs: debunking myths and removing barriers". CNS Spectrums 17: 17, pp 2–10. doi:10.1017/S109285291200003X.
^ "Tyramine in foods and monoamine oxidase inhibitor drugs: A crossroad where medicine, nutrition, pharmacy, and food industry converge". Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 19 (2006) S58–S65. http://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/7351/PDF.
^ ^a ^b Liebowitz MR, Hollander E, Schneier F, et al. (1990). "Reversible and irreversible monoamine oxidase inhibitors in other psychiatric disorders". Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 360: 29–34. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.1990.tb05321.x. PMID 2248064.
^ http://www.psycom.net/hysteroid.html Dowson, JH (1987). "MAO inhibitors in mental disease: their current status. [Review]". Journal of Neural Transmission. Supplementum 23: 121–38. PMID 3295114.
^ Edward J. Massaro, Handbook of Neurotoxicology
^ ^a ^b Nowakowska E, Chodera A (July 1997). "[Inhibitory monoamine oxidases of the new generation]" (in Polish). Pol. Merkur. Lekarski 3 (13): 1–4. PMID 9432289.
^ ScienceDirect - Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics : Structural insights into the mechanism of amine oxidation by monoamine oxidases A and B
^ BLTC Research [1] (2006). "Rasagiline: a neuroprotective smart drug?". The Good Drug Guide. http://www.elitenetpharmacy.com/pd_azilect.cfm. Retrieved 2007-12-02. "At dosages above around 2 mg per day, rasagiline loses its selectivity for MAO type B and also inhibits MAO type A. An MAO-B selective regimen does not cause significant tyramine potentiation, the dreaded 'cheese effect' common to users of older unselective and irreversible MAOIs who eat tyramine-rich foods. This will be taken with and without foo. Thus, low-dosage rasagiline demands no special dietary restrictions."
^ Jacob, Giris; Gamboa, Alfredo; Diedrich, André; Shibao, Cyndya; Robertson, David; Biaggioni, Italo (August 2005). "Tyramine-Induced Vasodilation Mediated by Dopamine Contamination: A Paradox Resolved". Hypertension (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins) 46 (2): 355–9. doi:10.1161/01.HYP.0000172353.62657.8b. PMID 15967868. http://pt.wkhealth.com/pt/re/hyper/pdfhandler.00004268-200508000-00023.pdf. Retrieved 2007-12-02. "Tyramine displaces norepinephrine from neuronal vesicles into the axoplasm, and it is likely that some of it is converted to DHPG, and only a portion reaches the circulation."
^ A.J Giannini. Psychotropic Drug Overdose. In M.E. Keshavan,J.S. Jennedy. (eds) Drug-Induced Dysfunction in Psychiatry. NY, Hemisphere Publishing,1992, pg. 41. ISBN 0-89116-961-X
^ ^a ^b Mosher, Clayton James, and Scott Akins. Drugs and Drug Policy : The Control of Consciousness Alteration. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2007.
^ Kramer, Peter D. Listening to Prozac. New York, N.Y., U.S.A.: Viking, 1993.
^ Pharmacology from H.P. Rang, M.M. Dale, J.M. Ritter, P.K. Moore, year 2003, chapter 38
^ Guillem K, Vouillac C, Azar MR, et al. (September 2005). "Monoamine oxidase inhibition dramatically increases the motivation to self-administer nicotine in rats". J. Neurosci. 25 (38): 8593–600. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2139-05.2005. PMID 16177026.
^ Villégier AS, Blanc G, Glowinski J, Tassin JP (September 2003). "Transient behavioral sensitization to nicotine becomes long-lasting with monoamine oxidases inhibitors". Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 76 (2): 267–74. doi:10.1016/S0091-3057(03)00223-5. PMID 14592678.
^ Amsterdam, J. V.; Talhout, R.; Vleeming, W.; Opperhuizen, A. (2006). "Contribution of monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibition to tobacco and alcohol addiction". Life Sciences 79 (21): 1969–1973. doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2006.06.010. PMID 16884739. edit
^ Berlin, I.; m. Anthenelli, R. (2001). "Monoamine oxidases and tobacco smoking". The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 4 (1): 33–42. doi:10.1017/S1461145701002188. PMID 11343627. edit
^ Fowler, J. S.; Volkow, N. D.; Wang, G. J.; Pappas, N.; Logan, J.; Shea, C.; Alexoff, D.; MacGregor, R. R. et al. (1996). "Brain monoamine oxidase a inhibition in cigarette smokers". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 93 (24): 14065–14069. doi:10.1073/pnas.93.24.14065. PMC 19495. PMID 8943061. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC19495/. edit
^ Fowler, J. S.; Volkow, N. D.; Wang, G.-J.; Pappas, N.; Logan, J.; MacGregor, R.; Alexoff, D.; Shea, C. et al. (1996). "Inhibition of monoamine oxidase B in the brains of smokers". Nature 379 (6567): 733–736. doi:10.1038/379733a0. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 8602220.
^ van Broekhoven F, Kan CC, Zitman FG (June 2002). "Dependence potential of antidepressants compared to benzodiazepines". Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 26 (5): 939–43. doi:10.1016/S0278-5846(02)00209-9. PMID 12369270.
^ Dobson, K. S.; et al., Steven D.; Dimidjian, Sona; Schmaling, Karen B.; Kohlenberg, Robert J.; Gallop, Robert J.; Rizvi, Shireen L.; Gollan, Jackie K. et al. (2008). "Randomized Trial of Behavioral Activation, Cognitive Therapy, and Antidepressant Medication in the Prevention of Relapse and Recurrence in Major Depression". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 76 (3): 468–77. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.76.3.468. PMC 2648513. PMID 18540740. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2648513/.
^ Livingston MG, Livingston HM (April 1996). "Monoamine oxidase inhibitors. An update on drug interactions". Drug Saf 14 (4): 219–27. doi:10.2165/00002018-199614040-00002. PMID 8713690.
^ Nair NP, Ahmed SK, Kin NM (November 1993). "Biochemistry and pharmacology of reversible inhibitors of MAO-A agents: focus on moclobemide". J Psychiatry Neurosci 18 (5): 214–25. PMC 1188542. PMID 7905288. //www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1188542/.
^ Baldwin D, Rudge S (1993). "Moclobemide: a reversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase type A". Br J Hosp Med 49 (7): 497–9. PMID 8490690.
^ Tomas Herraiz, Carolina Chaparro. Human monoamine oxidase enzyme inhibition by coffee and β-carbolines norharman and harman isolated from coffee. Life Sciences. 2006;78(8):795–802. doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2005.05.074. PMID 16139309.
^ Herraiza T, Gonzáleza D, Ancín-Azpilicuetac C, Aránb VJ, Guillén H. β-Carboline alkaloids in Peganum harmala and inhibition of human monoamine oxidase (MAO). Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2010;48(3):839–845. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2009.12.019. PMID 20036304.
^ Yong Nam Han, Shi Yong Ryu, Byung Hoon Han. Antioxidant activity of resveratrol closely correlates with its monoamine oxidase-A inhibitory activity. Archives of Pharmacal Research. 1990;13(2):132–135. doi:10.1007/BF02857789.
^ Ying Xu, Bao-Shan Ku, Hai-Yan Yao, Yan-Hua Lin, Xing Ma, Yong-He Zhang, Xue-Jun Li. The effects of curcumin on depressive-like behaviors in mice. European Journal of Pharmacology. 2005;518(1):40–46. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2005.06.002. PMID 15987635.
^ van Diermen D, Marston A, Bravo J, Reist M, Carrupt PA, Hostettmann K. Monoamine oxidase inhibition by Rhodiola rosea L. roots. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2009 Mar 18;122(2):397–401. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2009.01.007. PMID 19168123.
^ Stafford GI, Pedersen PD, Jäger AK, van Staden J. Monoamine oxidase inhibition by southern African traditional medicinal plants. South African Journal of Botany. 2007;73(3):384–390. doi:10.1016/j.sajb.2007.03.001.
^ White HL, Scates PW, Cooper BR. Extracts of Ginkgo biloba leaves inhibit monoamine oxidase. Life Science. 1996;58(16):1315–21. doi:10.1016/0024-3205(96)00097-5. PMID 8614288.
^ Dreiseitel A, Korte G, Schreier P, et al. (May 2009). "Berry anthocyanins and their aglycons inhibit monoamine oxidases A and B". Pharmacol. Res. 59 (5): 306–11. doi:10.1016/j.phrs.2009.01.014. PMID 19416630.
^ Xu Y, Li S, Chen R, et al. (January 2010). "Antidepressant-like effect of low molecular proanthocyanidin in mice: involvement of monoaminergic system". Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 94 (3): 447–53. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2009.10.007. PMID 19857512.
^ Shyh-Mirn Lin, Shih-Wei Wang, Su-Chen Ho, Ya-Li Tang. Protective effect of green tea (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate against the monoamine oxidase B enzyme activity increase in adult rat brains. Nutrition. 2010;26(11–12):1195–1200. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2009.11.022.
^ LD Konga, Christopher HK Chengb, RX Tan. Inhibition of MAO A and B by some plant-derived alkaloids, phenols and anthraquinones. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2004;91(2–3):351–355. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2004.01.013.
^ Hiroyuki Haraguchi, Yasumasa Tanaka, Amal Kabbash, Toshihiro Fujioka, Takashi Ishizu, Akira Yagi. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors from Gentiana lutea. Phytochemistry. 2004;65(15):2255–2260. doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2004.06.025.
^ Zion v. New York Hospital, 1994
^ Court TV coverage, 1994
^ Lerner, Barron H. (November 8, 2006). "The case that shook medicine". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/11/24/AR2006112400985.html.
^ Robert Morgenthau, Manhattan District Attorney May 1986
^ MTCMA Training manual "Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Fire Fighters and EMS Responders"
^ Robins, Natalie (1995). The Girl Who Died Twice. New York: Delacorte Press. ISBN 0-385-30809-4.

UpToDate Contents

全文を閲覧するには購読必要です。 To read the full text you will need to subscribe.

1. 成人におけるうつ病治療としてのモノアミン酸化酵素阻害剤（MAOI） monoamine oxidase inhibitors maois for treating depressed adults
2. セロトニン症候群（serotonin toxicity） serotonin syndrome serotonin toxicity
3. 選択的セロトニン再取り込み阻害剤：薬理学、投与方法、および副作用 selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors pharmacology administration and side effects
4. 成人における抗うつ薬の切り替え switching antidepressant medications in adults
5. 成人における抗うつ薬の中止 discontinuing antidepressant medications in adults

English Journal

Tricyclic Antidepressants and Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors: Are They Too Old for a New Look?

Chockalingam R1, Gott BM2, Conway CR3,4.
Handbook of experimental pharmacology.Handb Exp Pharmacol.2018 Aug 14. doi: 10.1007/164_2018_133. [Epub ahead of print]
PMID 30105472

Myocardial Injury from Tranylcypromine-Induced Hypertensive Crisis Secondary to Excessive Tyramine Intake.

Salter M1,2, Kenney A3.
Cardiovascular toxicology.Cardiovasc Toxicol.2018 Aug 6. doi: 10.1007/s12012-018-9476-9. [Epub ahead of print]
PMID 30083815

Acute hypertensive crisis and severe headache after concurrent use of armodafinil and tranylcypromine: Case report and review of the literature.

Kinslow CJ1, Shapiro SD2, Grunebaum MF3, Miller EC4.
Journal of the neurological sciences.J Neurol Sci.2018 Jul 31;393:1-3. doi: 10.1016/j.jns.2018.07.023. [Epub ahead of print]
PMID 30077942

Japanese Journal

Pharmacological treatment of social phobia:Traditional MAOIs and moclobemide.

Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 3, 193-194, 1993
NAID 30007420412

うつ病と不安障害(各科領域におけるうつ病の実態と留意点)(第33回日本心身医学会総会)

心身医学 33(2), 143-149, 1993
NAID 110001120233

THE INFLUENCE OF MONOAMINE OXIDASE INHIBITORS AND SOME OTHER ANTIDEPRESSANTS ON THE ANTIPARKINSONIAN ACTIVITY OF SUB-EFFECTIVE DOSES OF DIPHENYLHYDRAMINE IN RATS AND MICE

The Japanese Journal of Pharmacology 22(3), 301-307, 1972
NAID 130000837840

Related Pictures

Line up of maois on Easter Island. MAOIs or monoamine oxidase inhibitors Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) Maois tres Formación de maois en la isla de pascua. MAOIs Maois